Jamaica

island nation of the West Indies. It is the third largest island in the Caribbean Sea after Cuba and Hispaniola. With an area of 4,244 square miles (10,991 square kilometres), Jamaica is about 146 miles (235 kilometres) long and varies between 22 and 51 miles wide. It is situated some 100 miles due west of Haiti, 90 miles south of Cuba, and 390 miles northeast of Cape Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua, the nearest point on the American continent. The national capital is Kingston.

Christopher Columbus, who first sighted the island in 1494, called it Santiago, but the original Amerindian name of Jamaica, or Xaymaca, has persisted. Columbus considered it to be "the fairest isle that eyes have beheld," and many travelers still regard it as one of the most beautiful islands in the Caribbean.

Agriculture, the largest single employer of labour, is a principal contributor to the national income, together with industry--notably bauxite mining--and tourism. Jamaica has made great strides in economic development since its independence in 1962. The national motto, "Out of many, one people," describes a multiracial society whose integration can be described as both profound and enviable.

In general, the topography consists of coastal plains encircling an island that is bisected from east to west along its length by mountains and plateaus. The mountains form the chief physical feature. Almost half of Jamaica's surface is more than 1,000 feet above sea level. The chief range rises in the east to Blue Mountain Peak at 7,402 feet (2,256 metres) and then loses altitude as it sweeps westward. The mountains contribute to the great diversity of scenery for which the island is famous, ranging from the stunted, elfin forests of the highest peaks to the dry, sandy, cactus-growing areas of the south. There are rain forests in the highlands and flat, alluvial plains located chiefly on the south side of the island. The rolling limestone hills and plateaus in the central and western areas include the unusual, trackless karst (a limestone region broken by ridges, depressions, and caverns) region of the Cockpit Country, covering 500 square miles.

Drainage and soils

There are numerous rivers and streams issuing from the central mountainous area, but many disappear intermittently into the sinkholes of the karst region. Few are navigable for any great distance because of their rapid descent from the mountains. Some of the larger rivers have alluvial plains in their lower valleys, and some have deltas. The 44-mile-long Black River in the west is the longest and most important river; it is navigable by small boats for about 25 miles from its mouth.

More than half of the island's surface is covered with white limestone that overlies yellow limestone, beneath which are older metamorphic rocks (compact rocks formed by heat and pressure) and igneous rocks (formed by the cooling of molten material). The upland areas are mostly covered with bare rock or soils of little depth and are very susceptible to erosion. The alluvium of the coastal plains is composed chiefly of deep loam and clay. The valley floors are covered with residual clays.

Climate

The tropical climate is influenced by the sea and is characterized by little change in seasonal temperature, although the mountains cause regional variations. Because the island lies between the subtropical high-pressure and the equatorial low-pressure belts of the Atlantic Ocean, the northeast trade winds are dominant and blow throughout the year. Along the coasts, breezes blow onshore by day and offshore at night. During the winter months, from December to March, cold winds known locally as "northers" reach the island through the wide, open trough of the North American plains.

Variations in temperature range from 90 F (32 C) on the coasts to 40 F (4 C) on the peaks. Kingston, at sea level, has an average daily maximum temperature of 88 F (31 C) and an average daily minimum of 71 F (22 C). At Stony Hill, 1,400 feet above sea level, the maximum and minimum means are 86 F (30 C) and 68 F (20 C).

Rains are seasonal, falling chiefly in October and May, although thunderstorms in the summer months, from June to September, can bring heavy showers. The average annual rainfall for the entire island is 82 inches (2,095 millimetres), but regional variations are considerable. The mountains force the trade winds to deposit more than 130 inches a year on the eastern parish of Portland, while little precipitation occurs on the hot, dry savanna lands of the southern and southwestern plains. Jamaica is susceptible to hurricanes during the summer but after 1951 it was not struck until Hurricane Allen in 1980 and Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Earthquakes have caused serious damage only twice--in 1692 and 1907.

Plant and animal life

The richness and diversity of Jamaica's trees and plants constitute one of its chief glories, though it has changed considerably through the centuries. The island was completely forested in the 15th century, except for small agricultural clearings. The great timber trees were cut down for building purposes by the European settlers, and the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes were cleared for cultivation. Many new plants were introduced: the food plants--including sugarcane, bananas, and citrus--were almost all introduced to the island.

Jamaica has few indigenous quadrupeds. The coney, a member of the rodent family, once very numerous and prized as food before the European immigration, is now much reduced in range and number because of subsistence hunting and habitat destruction. The widespread mongoose, a small carnivore that feeds on rats and snakes, was introduced in 1872. The bat species are the most numerous of the mammals. The native crocodile may be in some danger of extinction, but this has not been confirmed. The main freshwater fish is the mountain mullet; there are four species of crayfish.

More than 200 species of birds have been recorded, including 25 endemic species, such as the streamertail hummingbird, which is the national bird. The bird population also includes species found both in the West Indies and in America and birds that migrate to Jamaica.

Settlement patterns

With the emancipation of the island's black slaves in 1838, a large proportion of the freed population--often with the aid of Nonconformist (non-Anglican) missionaries--left the large plantations. They moved to the hills where land was plentiful and created their own villages and communities. This migration laid the foundation of the present pattern of rural settlement.

Most of the cities and chief towns are located on the coastal plains, where the main commercial crops are grown. Kingston, the national capital, is located on the southeastern coast. It stands on the Liguanea Plain with the sea to the south and the St. Andrew Mountains, which form part of the ranges of the parish of St. Andrew, to the north. It is the commercial, administrative, and cultural centre of the island and the focus of its transportation services. Important centres in the interior are Spanish Town, the old capital 13 miles west of Kingston, and Mandeville, high in the Manchester mountains. Other important towns include Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Port Antonio on the north coast. Their fine white-sand beaches and exquisite mountain scenery make them popular tourist resorts.

Ethnic and linguistic composition

The aboriginal Arawak Indians were exterminated by the Spanish colonists by the time the English invaded the island in 1655. The Spaniards themselves disappeared as a population element shortly afterward. With the large-scale introduction of African slaves to work the sugar estates, the English settlers were soon greatly outnumbered. Today the population consists predominantly of the black and mulatto descendants of those slaves. Small minority elements originate from the United Kingdom, India, China, Syria, Portugal, and Germany.

English is the official language, but a local creole is also widely spoken and has achieved considerable status. It is basically English in vocabulary and grammar but contains features derived from a variety of African languages, as well as from Spanish and, to a lesser degree, French. This creole is a language of value and charm and is an important communication element on the island. There is a wide spectrum of dialects, however, some quite removed from standard English.

Religion

Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Jamaica's constitution. No single religion has a majority of adherents, but more than half are in Protestant denominations. Less than 10 percent of the population attend the Anglican church, which, as the Church of England, was the established church of the country until 1870. The largest denomination is that of the Church of God. Other sizable groups include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals, and Roman Catholics. Since the late 1970s there has been a steady increase of Evangelicalism. Smaller denominations, such as the Moravians, Disciples of Christ, Society of Friends, and United Church are important because of their social welfare work.

Nearly every Christian denomination and sect is represented, and the Jewish community is one of the oldest in the Western Hemisphere. There is a Hindu community, a Muslim mosque, and a branch of the Ethiopian Orthodox church. Some of the revivalist sects base their beliefs on Christianity, but their forms of worship differ widely from those accepted by most orthodox denominations. The central feature of the Pocomania sect, for example, is spirit possession; the Cumina sect has rituals characterized by drumming, dancing, and spirit possession.

Demographic trends

Through the centuries the population rose steadily, despite considerable emigration. Peak growth rates came in the 1950s and '60s, resulting in an unusually large number of persons reaching their 20s in the 1980s. The youthful population is expected to reach about three million by the year 2000. Birth and death rates have both declined since the 1970s.

Demographic trends

The pattern of migration began to take shape with the first wave of emigrants from Jamaica to Panama in the 1850s to help build a railway there. The French attempt to build a sea-level canal across the Isthmus of Panama in 1879 again drew Jamaican workers to Panama. The project failed, but the successful U.S. venture in the early 1900s to build the lake-and-lock canal accounted for another large emigration of Jamaican workers. The development of the banana industry in Central America drew still further numbers of Jamaicans, as did the need for workers in the sugar and coffee plantations of Cuba. Greater than all of the other emigrations combined was that to the United States, which began at the close of the 19th century, diminishing only after enforcement of quota regulations. The tide of emigration then turned toward Canada and, later, the United Kingdom and resulted in some 200,000 Jamaicans migrating to Britain during the period 1950-60; again immigration laws reduced the flow. Since the mid-1960s the United States and Canada have become the primary destination of Jamaican migrants.

The highly mobile character of Jamaica's population is further apparent in the high level of internal migration. The development of the bauxite and tourism industries was a significant factor in this regard. Between 1969 and 1974, for instance, some 28 percent of the population changed their parish of residence.

The economy

Jamaica's economy is essentially an open one, with heavy dependence on primary exports and on imports of manufactures and capital goods. There is active foreign economic participation, especially in the export sector (bauxite and alumina) and in tourism.

Resources

Among the minerals found on the island, bauxite, gypsum, silica sand, ceramic clays, marble, and limestone are of commercial interest. The bauxite is found in an area of about 1,000 square miles in central Jamaica; the gypsum and marble are in eastern Jamaica; clays are in the west; and limestone is found throughout the island.

Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries

Agriculture continues to be one of the main bases of the island's economy. The two major crops are sugar--with its by-products of rum and molasses--and bananas. Other important crops are citrus fruit, coffee, pimento, cocoa, tobacco, and ginger.

Forestry production is insufficient to meet the country's needs; most of the wood, cork, and paper consumed is imported. The government encourages afforestation.

Fishing is a major enterprise, which is estimated to support some 150,000 persons. The island shelf is the traditional fishing area. Mechanized boats sail about 60 miles southwest of Jamaica to Pedro Bank, while some fishermen travel 300 miles to fishing grounds.

Industry

Since 1952 mining has played an increasingly significant role in the country's economy. Bauxite mining has become the island's main mineral-industry enterprise. There is decreasing involvement of foreign companies, who have traditionally run the mines, while government involvement has increased. The production of silica sand is directed at local glass-container manufactures, while most of the gypsum is mined for export. Cement is largely used in local construction. Other mineral resources include limestone, marble, clay, peat, sand, and gravel, and, to a lesser extent, lignite, black sands containing titanium, copper, lead, zinc, and phosphates.

Manufacturing is increasingly important, both in providing employment and in satisfying the growing demand for manufactured goods. Processed foods, textiles, and metal products are the most important manufactures. Other significant categories are sugar, rum, and molasses processing, printing, chemical production, and cement and clay products. Industrial growth has been stimulated by the activities of Jamaica Promotions Ltd. (JAMPRO), a statutory body that promotes and facilitates both foreign and local investment, as well as Jamaican exports abroad.

Increasing reliance is being placed on tourism, which has become the country's largest source of foreign exchange. The traditional attractions of Jamaica for the tourist are the pleasant climate, fine beaches, and superb scenery.

Electricity is supplied from both public and private sources, about two-thirds coming from the public sector. Privately owned generating plants supply the power needs of major industries.

Finance

Commercial banks, some of which are subsidiaries of Canadian, British, and U.S. banks, dominate the financial sector. Savings and credit services are also offered by life insurance companies, building societies, and credit unions. The central bank, called the Bank of Jamaica, founded in 1960, controls money and credit and promotes economic development. A number of development banks and special development funding institutions provide loans for industry, housing, tourism, and agriculture.

Trade

The principal exports are alumina and bauxite; sugar, bananas, coffee, and other agricultural products; and clothing. Jamaica's principal trading partners include the United States, the United Kingdom and other members of the European Community (EC), Canada, member states of the Caribbean Community, certain Latin-American countries, Japan, and some countries in eastern Europe. Jamaica enjoys preferential trading relationships with the member states of the EC under the Lomé Convention, with the United States under the Caribbean Basin Initiative, with Canada under the Caribcan arrangement, and with other Caribbean states as a member of the Caribbean Community (Caricom). The Jamaican currency is maintained at a relatively stable exchange rate relative to the U.S. dollar.

Transportation

Generally, the transport systems follow the coastline or cut across the central mountains from north to south. The main roads encircle the island, loop into the plains areas, and cross the mountains at three major north-to-south crossings. Public passenger services are available outside the capital, which itself has a regular bus service. There are also taxi and limousine services.

The main line of the railway system, parts of which have existed since 1845, runs northwest from Kingston to Montego Bay via Spanish Town, May Pen, and Montpelier. The system is operated by the Jamaica Railway Corporation. There are scheduled international air services at the two major airports--the Norman Manley, on the Palisadoes in Kingston, and the Donald Sangster at Montego Bay; both are named for former prime ministers. These airports, together with another at Tinson Pen, Kingston, also handle scheduled domestic flights and air-taxi services. Port Antonio, Ocho Rios, and Negril have major public airstrips, and there are privately owned airstrips throughout the island. Kingston, Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Port Antonio are the principal seaports. Regular shipping services link Jamaica with the Caribbean, South and Central America, Canada, the United States, Europe, and East Asia.

Government

Under the Jamaica (Constitution) Order in Council of 1962, by which the island achieved independence, the monarch of the United Kingdom is titular head of state. A Jamaican governor-general is chosen by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister. The prime minister is appointed by the leading political party from its parliamentary members. The legislature is a bicameral parliament consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate. The House has 60 members, who are elected by universal adult suffrage. The speaker and deputy speaker are elected by the House from its members. The Senate has 21 members, who are appointed by the governor-general--13 in accordance with the advice of the prime minister and eight on the advice of the leader of the opposition party. The president and deputy president of the Senate are elected by its members. The principal policy-making body is the Cabinet, which consists of the prime minister and at least 11 other ministers, of whom at least two but not more than four must be members of the Senate. The Privy Council is limited to advising the governor-general on the exercise of the royal prerogative of mercy and on the discipline of government officials and employees.

The island is divided into 14 parishes, two of which are amalgamated as the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation. Local affairs in the other parishes are administered by individual parish councils whose members are elected. The chairmen of the councils are the mayors of those parish capitals that enjoy mayoral status.

The two main political parties are the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) and the People's National Party (PNP). General elections must be held at least once every five years. The most important trade unions are the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union (affiliated with the JLP) and the National Workers' Union (affiliated with the PNP). There are also employers' associations.

Judiciary

The legal system is based on English common law. The highest court in the Jamaican legal system is the Court of Appeals. It hears appeals from the Resident Magistrates' Court, which includes the Family Courts, the Kingston Traffic Court, Juvenile Courts, and a division of the Gun Court, and from the Supreme Court, the highest trial court.

Education

Primary education is free and in certain districts compulsory. A substantial part of the annual budget goes to the Ministry of Education. Considerable sums are devoted to the College of Agriculture, the College of Arts, Science, and Technology, the University of the West Indies (the main campus of which is at Mona, a northeastern section of Kingston), and teacher-training colleges. Education is provided by government-aided and private schools, some of which are run by religious bodies. In recent years there has been an emphasis on vocational training for school dropouts.

Health and welfare

Medical care is provided by several public hospitals, including the university hospital, and various health centres and clinics. There are also a few private hospitals. Highly successful programs of insect control and malaria eradication have been undertaken, and Jamaica participates in the hemispheric drive to increase levels of participation in immunization programs.

In the field of social development, government programs are geared toward helping persons to function as productive individuals or groups in their communities. These programs, prepared by government and private organizations, are designed to assist children, youth, women, and the community in such areas as vocational training and job placement. The government operates a compulsory National Insurance Scheme that provides retirement and other benefits and a noncontributory Social Assistance Programme to help the needy.

Much attention has been paid to housing, and there are many large development schemes in both urban and rural areas, especially in the Kingston and St. Andrew suburbs. Although the government undertakes many types of housing schemes, its chief concern is with low-income projects.

Cultural life

There is a vigorous and productive art movement in Jamaica. The works of Jamaican writers may be read in several languages. Jamaican artists have exhibited successfully abroad, and local art shows are a regular part of life. The Institute of Jamaica, an early patron and promoter of the arts, sponsors exhibitions and awards. It has responsibility for the Cultural Training Centre, which includes schools of art, dance, drama, and music, as well as for the National Library, the National Gallery, and a publishing company. The institute is also the country's museums authority. The Jamaica Library Service, the Jamaica Archives, the National Library, and the University of the West Indies contribute to the promotion of the arts and culture, as do numerous commercial art galleries.

Theatre and musical groups are highly active on the island. The National Dance Company, formed in 1962, has earned international recognition. Much of the country's artistic expression finds an outlet in Festival, sponsored annually by the government as part of the independence celebrations. While the festival has many features of the traditional Caribbean type of carnival, it is much wider in scope. In addition to street dancing and parades, there are also arts and crafts exhibitions and literary, theatrical, and musical competitions.

The concern with Jamaica's cultural tradition is evident in an artistic and cultural awakening accompanied by a keen search for roots in folk forms, which are based chiefly on the colourful, rhythmic intensity of an African heritage, with overtones of unique multiracial influences, such as in reggae music. Folk music, stories, and dances are systematically sought out and recorded. The important aesthetic elements in some of the revivalist cults, notably Pocomania, are recognized, and modern dance and drama employ many folk expressions.

Jamaica's beaches are perhaps the country's most highly utilized recreation facility. Cricket, however, is the most popular sport, played throughout the island and drawing large crowds to international matches held at Sabina Park. Soccer ranks next to cricket in importance.

Freedom of the press is guaranteed by the Jamaican constitution. The island has three daily newspapers, The Daily Gleaner, the Jamaica Record, and The Star, all published in Kingston. Numerous U.S. and other foreign newspapers and magazines are also readily available. The publicly owned Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation is the chief radio and television broadcaster. Other radio programming is provided by KLAS and Radio Jamaica Ltd.

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