Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1962. It obtained membership in the Commonwealth in that same year.

Physiographically, the islands represent an extension of the South American mainland. The outstanding physical feature of Trinidad is its Northern Range (a continuation of the coastal ranges of the Andes Mountains in Venezuela), which runs from west to east at an average elevation of about 1,500 feet, rising to 3,084 feet (940 metres) at the Aripo Mountain, the country's highest peak. The Northern Range is the site of a large number of waterfalls, the most spectacular of which are the Blue Basin and the Maracas Falls, both 298 feet high. On the southern side of the range, foothills with an elevation of approximately 500 feet descend to the Northern Plain.

Running across the centre of the island, from southwest to northeast, is the Central Range, the highest point of which is Mount Tamana (1,009 feet). A third row of mainly low hills, the Southern Range, adds further variety to the mostly flat or undulating surface of Trinidad.

These three mountain ranges determine the island's drainage pattern. Rivers are numerous but short, the longest being the Ortoire in the south (31 miles) and the Caroni in the north (25 miles). Swamps occupy parts of the low-lying areas, among them the Caroni Swamp in the northwest and clusters along the east and south coasts.

An oil-bearing belt occupies the southern quarter of the island, extending west into the Gulf of Paria and east into the Atlantic Ocean. Gas and water seepages give rise to mud volcanoes of various types, the best-known of which is called the Devil's Woodyard. In the southwest of the island is the sedimentary volcano known as the Pitch Lake, which contains reserves of asphalt.

Tobago is physiographically an extension of the Venezuelan coastal range and the Northern Range of Trinidad. Its dominant feature is the Main Ridge, which runs from northeast to southwest, rising to heights of about 1,800 feet. The ridge slopes more gently to the southwest onto a coral plain. The coral formation has given rise to a number of reefs, one of which, Buccoo Reef, is known for its marine life and is popular for scuba diving and snorkeling. The island has only a few short streams.

Climate

The climate of Trinidad and Tobago is tropical, with a high relative humidity. The coolest months are January and February, when the average minimum temperature is about 68 F (20 C). The warmest months are April, May, and October, which have an average maximum temperature of about 89 F (32 C). In general, mean temperatures range between 77 F (25 C) in February and 85 F (29 C) in April. Temperatures vary significantly between day and night, and the climate along the coast is tempered by sea breezes.

There is a main dry season from January to May and a lesser dry season (Petite Carême, or Indian Summer) in September and October. The prevailing winds are the northeast trades. The islands are outside the main hurricane zone, but Tobago occasionally is struck by a disastrous hurricane (e.g., in 1867 and 1963).

Plant and animal life

Vegetation zones are well defined on both islands. In general, the highest areas coincide with the most luxuriant tropical rain forest vegetation. Cultivated estates or small settlements are established in clearings on the hills. In the dry season the hills are dotted with the orange flowers of the mountain immortelle, a large flowering tree that grows to a height of about 80 feet, and the gold flowers of the poui. Sugarcane, the main agricultural crop, is grown on Trinidad's Central Plain.

The Caroni Swamp, a bird sanctuary, is frequented by flocks of white flamingos and egrets as well as populations of scarlet ibis--a national bird. The greater bird-of-paradise has been introduced to the island of Little Tobago. The forests on both islands are hunting grounds for small game, the most sought after being the paca, or lappe. Other animals include the agouti (a short-haired, short-eared, rabbitlike rodent), collared peccary, or quenck (a wild hog), tattoo (an armadillo), prehensile-tailed porcupine, and iguana (a large lizard). There are four main groups of reptiles: snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles (one kind, the caiman, related to the alligator).

Settlement patterns

Soils, climate, and vegetation all have influenced the pattern of local settlement. Villages stretch ribbonlike along the major roadways. In Trinidad, though not in Tobago, villages are so diverse in plan that it would be difficult to call any typical.

Even in the sugar belt of the Central Plain, with its mainly (though not exclusively) East Indian population, patterns vary. Kinship tends to be the important structural element in the life of the East Indian village in Trinidad; caste may also have a localized influence. Religious festivals, such as Diwali (Festival of Lights) and various forms of puja (ceremonial offering), are important events. Houses vary in size and architecture from the simple thatched hut to the well-built two-story dwelling, brightly painted and roofed with corrugated iron.

A somewhat different lifestyle prevails in villages inhabited by people predominantly of African descent, though many villages have both East Indian and African characteristics. Because of the conditioning of the slave system, traditional African culture has undergone considerable mutation or reinterpretation. The family unit is nuclear rather than extended and may be based upon marriage or upon a stable extralegal relationship.

These different rural cultural streams converge on the capital, Port of Spain. This city, with its mixed population, its Spanish influence (particularly in architecture), and French creole flavour, is one of the most cosmopolitan in the world. San Fernando, with its large East Indian population, is the second largest town and is located south of Port of Spain on the west coast. Arima is the oldest municipality in Trinidad. Scarborough, the chief town in Tobago, is an administrative centre and market town.

The people

The original inhabitants of Trinidad were chiefly Arawak. Although there are inhabitants of the town of Arima who claim descent from Carib royalty, it is doubtful that the land was settled by Caribs. Tobago was frequently visited by American Indians, probably both Arawak and Carib, but was not settled before the arrival of Columbus. Spanish, French, African, English, East Indian, and Chinese have all contributed to the ethnic composition of the islands' population. The various immigrant groups brought with them their languages, culture, and religion. Although English is the official language, four creole languages (Trinidad English, a French creole, a Spanish dialect creole, and Manzanillan--a melange of English, Spanish, and several African tongues) and some East Indian languages also are spoken.

Under the Spanish, Roman Catholicism was the official religion, and it was strengthened by French immigration during the French and Haitian revolutions. Protestantism gained a foothold in various forms (Anglican, Methodist, Moravian, and Baptist) with the advent of the British. East Indians brought with them their languages and their Hindu and Muslim religions. Both Sunnite and Shi'ite Muslim groups are present. Further diversification followed with the immigration of Syrians and Lebanese. African-influenced religious groups include the Shango and Shouter cults.

The first census of Trinidad and Tobago, in 1861, recorded a population of almost 100,000. By 1921 the population had more than tripled to some 360,000. Both the birth and death rates have remained fairly stable since the 1960s, and the rate of natural increase has been high. Emigration from the islands, however, has moderated the total population growth rate.

When Christopher Columbus reached Trinidad in 1498 on his third voyage, the island was inhabited by peoples who had come originally from the Orinoco River delta region. Tribal groups speaking Arawakan languages were in the majority, but there were probably Carib speakers as well. In the 16th century many of these Trinidadian Indians were captured by Spanish slave traders and sent to work in other Spanish possessions, but there was no effective Spanish presence on the island until 1592. In that year, Antonio de Berrio took official possession of the island and founded St. Joseph, the capital until 1784. Even after 1592 the development of the island proceeded slowly. Few Spaniards emigrated to Trinidad, only a handful of African slaves were imported, and there was little production or export. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, tobacco and, later, cacao were cultivated using Indian labour, but after a disastrous cacao failure in the 1720s the industry declined. The island remained undeveloped until the late 18th century.

From 1776 the Spanish government encouraged Roman Catholics from the other Caribbean islands to settle in Trinidad with their slaves. This immigration became significant after the Cedula (decree) of 1783, which offered generous land and tax incentives to settlers, and transformed Trinidad's population, economy, and society. Most of the settlers were French, and French influence became dominant. Many slaves were brought in from the other colonies and from Africa. Plantations were established, production of cotton and sugar began, and trade increased markedly. By 1797, when Britain seized the island from Spain, Trinidad had begun its development as a plantation economy and a slave society.

Trinidad was formally ceded to Britain in 1802. Under British rule, Trinidad's development as a sugar colony continued, although in 1806-07 the slave trade was completely prohibited. Slavery was abolished in two stages between 1834 and 1838, and the sugarcane planters were unable to secure the steady, tractable, and cheap labour they wanted. In 1845 the immigration of indentured workers from India began; it continued until 1917. As early as 1870, about a quarter of the total population consisted of Indians. The original Trinidadian Indian inhabitants had by then virtually disappeared. Other immigrants came to Trinidad after 1838 from the smaller British Caribbean colonies, Africa (as free settlers rescued from foreign slave ships), Madeira, China, Syria, Lebanon, Venezuela, and the United Kingdom. Trinidad's population became the most heterogeneous in the Caribbean.

Tobago, also sighted by Columbus in 1498, was virtually untouched by European settlement until the 18th century. Its development as a sugar colony began when it was ceded to Britain in 1763 and continued throughout the period from 1763 to 1814, when Tobago changed hands between Britain and France several times. Tobago's sugar production peaked in the 1790s but began an irreversible decline after 1807. Tobago was ceded to Britain for the last time in 1814, but by then its importance as a sugar-exporting colony had already begun to wane. Unlike Trinidad, Tobago had its own bicameral legislature until 1874. In 1889, with the island's economy in shambles as a result of the collapse of its sugar industry, Tobago was amalgamated with Trinidad, while retaining a subordinate legislature and separate taxes. In 1899 it became a ward (administrative district) of Trinidad and Tobago.

In 1925 a constitutional reform added seven elected members to Trinidad and Tobago's Legislative Council. Further agitation--especially an islandwide series of strikes and riots in 1937 under Uriah Butler--led to the grant of universal suffrage in 1945 and other constitutional reforms that provided for a measure of self-government. For about 10 years after universal suffrage, politics in the colony were characterized by individualism and confusion, but in 1956 the People's National Movement (PNM) won a victory at the polls and formed the first party-based cabinet government. Trinidad and Tobago attained independence in 1962 and became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1976.

The PNM won six consecutive elections and held power from 1956 to 1986. This continuity and stability in government were accompanied by economic problems and social unrest, culminating in widespread disturbances in 1970-71. But the oil boom in 1973-81 brought sudden prosperity to most sections of the population, and Trinidad and Tobago entered a period of rapid development and industrialization. A substantial state sector and fairly comprehensive social welfare programs were created from the petroleum profits, while the private sector expanded rapidly. The collapse of oil prices, along with the PNM's failure to win support from most Indo-Trinidadians and deep-seated corruption, led to a marked decline in the party's popularity.

In December 1986 the National Alliance for Reconstruction (NAR), a coalition party, won 33 of 36 seats on a program calling for divestment of most state-owned companies, reorganization of the civil service, and structural readjustment of the economy in the light of shrinking oil revenues. Although the NAR government succeeded somewhat in stimulating economic growth while keeping inflation low, its policies were widely resented and the party was damaged by splits and defections. In July 1990 a small, radical Muslim group attempted a coup in which several ministers, including the prime minister, were held hostage for six days. The NAR was defeated in elections in December 1991, and the PNM returned to power.